Which of the following represents the primary steps of translation?

• A. Initiation, Elongation, Termination
• B. Splicing, Capping, Tailing
• C. Replication, Transcription, Translation
• D. Helix unwinding, Primer binding, Ligation

Answer: (D)

Translation is the process by which a ribosome reads an mRNA sequence and builds a polypeptide. The main steps are initiation, elongation, and termination. In initiation, the ribosome assembles at the start codon with an initiator tRNA to set the reading frame. During elongation, each codon on the mRNA is matched with the corresponding tRNA, a peptide bond forms between amino acids, and the ribosome moves along the mRNA to add more residues. In termination, a stop codon is encountered, release factors promote release of the completed polypeptide, and the ribosomal subunits disassemble.

The other options describe processes not part of translation. Splicing, capping, and tailing are RNA processing events that occur before translation in the nucleus or on mRNA transcripts. Replication, transcription, and translation together outline the flow of genetic information, but translation itself is separate from replication and transcription. Helix unwinding, primer binding, and ligation are steps associated with DNA replication and repair, not translation.